For those who prefer to read this column in English, the Japanese text is followed by a British English translation, so please scroll down to the bottom of the Japanese text.

2018年（平成30年）6月28日から7月8日にかけて、西日本を中心に北海道や中部地方を含む全国的に広い範囲で発生した台風7号および梅雨前線等の影響による集中豪雨（平成30年7月豪雨、別称「西日本豪雨」）によって、岡山県倉敷市真備町でも甚大な水害を被り、テレビ中継された一体の浸水映像は記憶に新しい。実は、この倉敷市真備町（旧吉備郡真備町）の地名は、奈良時代に遣唐使となり、後に右大臣まで昇進した郷土の偉人吉備真備（きびのまきび）縁の地として命名されたものである。

吉備真備は、日経新聞朝刊に連載中の新聞小説「ふりさけ見れば」（安部龍太郎著）に、主人公の阿倍仲麻呂（あべのなかまろ）とともに遣唐使として派遣されて、20年近くに及ぶ在唐生活を終えて帰国する間際の情景が描かれている。この小説の表題にもなっている「天の原　ふりさけ見れば　春日なる　御蓋の山に　いでし月かも」（古今和歌集）は仲麻呂の有名な歌である。仲麻呂は、天皇家に繋がる中級貴族の出自で、在唐中に科挙に及第して宮廷の次官級の高官にまで上りつめて王維や李白とも親交したが、結局日本に戻れなかった。一方、遣唐使の象徴として仲麻呂と双璧をなし、帰朝して多くの文物を持ち帰って日本の発展に多大の貢献を果たしたのが下級官吏から身を起こした真備である。

遣唐使は、7～9世紀に当時の超大国唐に15～16回にわたり10数年に1回の割合で派遣され、唐の律令体制、暦法をはじめとする唐の文化や密教などの新しい仏教を日本にもたらした。遣唐使事業が終了した後は、江戸時代にまで「唐物」への憧れは続く一方で、独自の「国風文化」に発展し、現代の「日本文化」の基礎を築いた。

１．遣唐留学生　吉備真備

吉備真備（以下真備）は、本姓を下道（しもつみち）朝臣といい、古墳時代以来吉備地方に勢力を有した吉備氏一族を構成する備中国下道郡の郡領氏族下道氏出身で、郡領子弟から宮門の守衛などにあたる中央の下級官人になった下道圀勝を父とし、大学に学び、霊亀3年（717年）に遣唐学生として23歳で渡唐した。41歳で帰国するまでの19年間、儒教、天文学、兵法、音楽などを学び、帰国に際しては、「唐礼」130巻などの膨大な書籍をはじめ、唐礼、暦法、測量道具、楽器、工芸品的な弓箭など幅広い分野の唐文化関連品を持ち帰った。

帰国した真備は、遣唐留学の成果を背景に、文人官僚として大いに活躍している。遣唐使による唐文化移入の初期に、唐の諸学芸を総体的に習得した人物として聖武天皇に重用され、皇太子阿倍内親王（のちの孝謙・称徳天皇）の東宮学士・東宮大夫を務めて、天平勝宝元年（749年）孝謙天皇が即位すると従四位上に昇叙された。そして、備中国下道郡だけでなく吉備地方（備前国・備中国・備後国）全域を代表する大豪族と認められ、天平18年（746年）に下道朝臣姓から吉備朝臣姓に改姓している。

その後、政権中枢にあった大納言藤原仲麻呂（ふじわらのなかまろ）によって中央政界を追われて筑前守となって九州に下り、翌天平勝宝４年（752年）には、遣唐使節の遣唐副使として再び渡唐している。真備の唐に関わる深い知識や経験を活かして遣唐使節の役割を円滑に果たすことに寄与したと考えられる。因みに、この遣唐使節（第二船）の帰国時＜天平勝宝6年（754年）＞に鑑真が随伴して来日している。

真備は、帰国しても都には戻ることなく太宰府の次官のまま10年を九州で過ごしたが、天平宝字8年（764年）に「藤原仲麻呂の乱」が発生すると、緊急で従三位・参議に叙任されて孝謙上皇側に参画し、真備は、天皇直属の軍団の長である中衛大将として追討軍を指揮して唐で学んだ兵学の知識を用いて乱の鎮圧に功を挙げた。そして、正三位にのぼり、中納言から大納言を経て、地方豪族の出身者としては異例の正二位・右大臣にまで昇任している。宝亀2年（771年）に老齢を理由に辞職し、宝亀6年（775年）に81歳で没しているが、長生して、遣唐留学生として学んだ知見を活かして朝廷を支えるとともにその後の日本文化の形成に果たした功績は、遣唐使の中でも抜きん出ていたと考える。

２．遣唐使　派遣した背景と果たした役割

遣唐使派遣は260年あまりに及んだが、その時代によって、派遣の目的や性格も異なるとされる。遣唐使船再現シンポジウム編「遣唐使船の時代」（角川選書）では、次のように3期に区分して論考している（鈴木靖民「第1章遣唐使と古代の東アジア」より。和暦表記を省略、出発年）。

第1期（630～669年、7回派遣）

遣隋使（600～614年）の延長としての意味があり、仏教をはじめとする宗教、学問、技術、技能などの新思想、学芸、制度を学び、倭国（日本）の支配秩序、国制、政治改革や文化の形成に資するように努めた。一方、唐が繰り返した高句麗征伐とそれに続く朝鮮半島攻略、倭と関係が深い百済の切迫した情勢（660年に百済滅亡）への対処といった外交面の役割もあった。倭国と唐の使節の交流は669年の派遣を最後に32年間途絶えている。

第2期（702～779年、7回派遣）

古代日本の唐への関心が最も高揚した時代で、702年に再開された遣唐使は、大宝令に法制化された「日本」の国号と「天皇」号を外交の場で初めて公式に用いた。使節が唐都長安を見聞して壮大な都城のプランを日本に伝え、それが平城京造営の契機の一つとなったとされる。日本の使節は、遣唐使を「朝貢使」と認識していたが書儀に沿った外交文書の国書は持参せずに、唐皇帝が官爵を授ける冊封は受けず、臣従することはなかったとされる。唐皇帝との賓礼では他国と国際序列を競い合ったが、遣唐使は「外臣」の「朝貢使」として扱われ、使節一行もそれに沿って綿、絹製品、銀、水晶などの特産品を朝貢品として携えて皇帝に進貢している。

こうした政治、外交上の目的と相まって、唐文化の移植がしきりに行われた。真備が留学生として717年に派遣された遣唐使以後は、日本の国内制度の整備や仏教界の要請を背景にして、喫緊の学習目的を帯びる短期滞在型（請益生、請益僧）と長期滞在型（留学生、留学僧）とを区分して派遣制度の充実を図った。また、仏教を尊崇する皇族、貴族層の要求に応えて、卓越した知識、思想、技術、技能を持つ唐人を招致するように努めた。754年には遣唐使が唐の玄宗皇帝に要請して鑑真の来日が実現し、聖武太上天皇・孝謙天皇等が鑑真によって菩薩戒（菩薩が受けて保つべき戒）を授けられているが、唐文化を讃え受戒して国際的に通用する崇仏国と唐に認められ、良好な国際関係の構築を目指す対外的意図も込められていたとされる。

第3期（803年・836年、2回派遣）

9世紀の平安時代における二度の大規模な派遣で、日唐間の交流に大きな足跡を残した。この時期は、唐が「安史の乱」（755～763年）を境に国家的変容を見せる中で、対唐政策に関わる国際政治上の企図はくみ取れないが、文化的目的が引き続き明確に存在していた。特に、唐の最先端の仏教を身を賭して懸命に学んだ留学僧・請益僧の空海・最澄（803年派遣）、円仁（836年派遣）等が、密教求法の具体的な準備をして渡海して短期間で精力的な求法活動を繰り広げたことはよく知られている。

遣唐使が手にした先進の唐文化は、日本の唐風文化を醸成する因子となった。そして、種々の思想、宗教、信仰の刷新に加えて、神祇信仰に仏教信仰、陰陽道を加えて現世利益と来世利益を併せ願う複合的な日本的信仰システムの形成に大きく貢献した。

3．「唐風」文化から「国風」文化へ

寛平6年（894年）、菅原道真（すがわらのみちざね）が遣唐大使に任命されたが、唐では9世紀半ばから各地で武装闘争が相次ぎ唐朝の支配力が弱体化するなど情勢が変化したこと、新羅の海賊の横行などを理由にして、道真が派遣停止を願って認められると、国家制度としての遣唐使は終了した。そして、907年には唐そのものが滅亡している。

唐風の文化を踏まえながらも日本の風土や生活感情である「国風」を重視する傾向は奈良時代から進行していたが、遣唐使停止は日本文化の国風化を加速させる要因となった。つまり、「遣唐使停止により国風文化が成立した」というのは誤解であり、「10世紀以降にこそ唐文化・唐の文物の影響は益々大きくなるのであり、唐物に囲まれた貴族の生活や、女流文学を確立する（紫式部や清少納言等の）才媛たちの漢文的教養のありかたを踏まえても、唐文化の消化と日本化の上に生まれた『国風文化』だったと評価すべき」とされている（森公章著「遣唐使の光芒」（角川選書））。遣唐使は唐から様々な文物を持ち帰ったが、陶磁器をはじめとする工芸品、綾錦などの高級織物、毛皮、ガラス、文房具、香料、薬種、貴木、珍獣、典籍などの「唐物」は、朝廷が管理・統制しようとした中国経由の貴重な舶来品で、「唐物」へのブランドイメージは、明治期になって欧米からの舶来品に取って代わられるまで続いた。

今回のまとめ

遣唐使は、超大国唐から学ぶために命を賭して渡海し、自ら必死に学びまた唐人の高僧や技術者を帯同して、仏教をはじめとする宗教、学問、技術、技能などの新思想、学芸、日本の国制や日本文化の形成に大きく貢献した。遣唐使派遣が終了した10世紀以降も唐風文化の移入は続く一方で、先進の唐風文化を踏まえつつ、日本の風土や生活感情である「国風」を重視した国風文化が形成され、今日の日本文化の誕生に至る。そこに真備が残した功績は、国政への貢献と併せると、歴代の遣唐使メンバーの中でも群を抜いていると感じる。

遣唐使を派遣した古代の日本と同様に、今日の企業経営においても、市場競争力強化に向けて、特に自社よりも優位に位置する競争他社から学んで自社の強み・弱みを認識して、勝ち残るための戦略を実行する。また、戦略を立案・実行する優秀で組織へのロイヤリティが高い人材の育成・確保が重要である。

企業は戦略実行に伴って発生するリスクをとって果敢にチャレンジすることになるが、成功に導きつつ会社と人材を守るためには、リスク・マネジメントが不可欠である。弊社グローバル・リンクでは、リスク・マネジメント ツールとしての効果が高い「キャプティブ（自社専用保険会社）」の設立をお薦めしている。

執筆・翻訳者：菅原　伸雄

English Translation

CS33(Corporate Strategy)　Kibi-no-Makibi （Great Achievements as the Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China）

When the torrential rains had occurred nationwide including Hokkaido, Chubu area and mainly Western Japan in July 2018 by the season’s seventh typhoon and the seasonal rain front, the area of Mabi-cho in Kurashiki City, Okayama Pref. had suffered a severe damage from a great flood.   The pictures of broadcasting of the flooding there are still fresh in our memory.  In fact, the name of area of Mabi-cho in Kurashiki City, formerly called Kibi-cho in Makibi-district, was named as the area related to Kibi-no-Makibi, a great man born there, who was a member of a Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China in Nara era (710 – 784) and  was at last prompted to Udaijin (minister of the right).

In the serial novel by Abe Ryutaro titled “Furisake Mireba (Look Back Over the Past)” currently appeared in the Nikkei newspaper, and the present story unfolds in the plot in which Kibi-no-Makibi (“Makibi”) and Abe-no-Nakamaro (“A.Nakamaro”, the main character of the novel), who were sent to Tang Dynasty China as the members of Japanese Envoy, are preparing to return to Japan after their stay there for 20 years.  The title of the novel was taken from a famous tanka (a 31-syllable Japanese poem) by A.Nakamaro, who was born in the middle noble class originated in the Imperial Family of Japan.  A.Nakamaro passed the ancient Chinese higher civil service examinations, was promoted even to a vice-minister of Tang Dynasty China and made close friends with Wei Wang and Li Po.  However, he could not return to Japan.  On the other hand, Makibi in addition to A.Nakamaro was one of the two greatest members of Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China.  Makibi greatly contributed to the development of Japan through taking the things of Tang Dynasty to Japan, even though he had started from a minor government official.

The Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China were sent to Tang Dynasty, a superstate, in the 7^th through 8^th Century 15 or 16 times, as often as once in around ten years.  They brought to Japan Ritsuryotaisei (ruling and administrative order), the cultures of Tang Dynasty such as calendar and new Buddhism.  After the end of sending the Envoys, Japanese continuously had aspired to Karamono (oriented in China) until Edo era (1603 – 1868), on the other hand, the native Japanese culture was developed to be the basis of current Japanese culture.

1．Kibi-no-Makibi as a member of Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China

The original surname of Kibi-no-Makibi (“Makibi”) was Shimotsumichi Ason and he was a member of Shimotsumichi clan in Shimotsumichi County, Bitchu Province, which was a part of Kibi clan having power in Kibi area since Kofun period (in the middle of the 3^rd – 7^th Century).  His father’s name was Kunikatsu, who was a son of the load of Shimotsumichi County and became to a lower official of Imperial Court to guard the gates of the Imperial Palace.  Makibi studied in the ancient Japanese school, made a voyage to Tang Dynasty China as a member of Japanese Envoy when he was 23, learned Confucianism, astronomy, art of warfare and music etc. for 19 years until he came back to Japan when he was 41.  And he brought a variety of things of Tang Dynasty such as massive amount of books, manners of Tang Dynasty, calendar, surveying equipment, musical instruments and craft bows and arrows.

After Makibi came back to Japan, he was greatly successful as a government official of letters using the result of his study in Tang Dynasty.  At the early stage of importing the culture of Tang Dynasty, he held important positions by Emperor Shomu because he had totally learned the arts and sciences of Tang Dynasty.  He served as the tutor of Princess Abe (later, Emperor Koken and Emperor Shotoku) and was promoted to Jushijo (Junior Fourth Rank, Upper Grade) when Princess Abe assumed the position of Emperor.  And he was admitted to be the most powerful local ruling family in Kibi area (all of Provinces of Bizen, Bitchu and Bingo) and he changed his surname from Shimotsumichi Ason to Kibi Ason in 746.

After then, Makibi was expelled from the central government and moved down to Kyushu as the governor of Chikuzen Province by Fujiwara-no-Nakamaro, Dainagon (chief councilor of state), who was assuming a key government post.  And in the following year (in 752), he was sent again to Tang Dynasty as the vice-envoy of the other Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty.  He, taking his deep knowledge and experience related to Tang Dynasty, would have contributed to smoothly complete the mission of the Envoy.  By the way, Jianzhen visited Japan by the second ship of this Envoy when Makibi returned to Japan in 754.

After Makibi came back to Japan, he did not return to the capital to spend 10 years as the Deputy-chief of Dazaifu in Kyushu.  Since “Rebellion by Fujiwara-no-Nakamaro” occurred in 764, Makibi was urgently ranked up as Jusani (Junior Third Rank) and was appointed to Sangi (councillor) and he commanded the military forces to hunt down the rebels led by Fujiwara-no-Nakamaro as Chue daisho (commander of the middle inner palace guard division).  He won fame to crush the rebellion using the knowledge of military science learned as an overseas student of Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty.  He ranked up as Shosanmi (Senior Third Rank) and was appointed to Chunagon (Vice-councilor of state), then to Dainagon (Chief councilor of state) and finally to Udaijin (Minister of the Right) with ranking up as Shonii (Senior Second Rank), which was an extraordinary promotion for a man whose origin of family was from a local province.  He resigned his job because of old age in 771 and died at the age of 81.  I am confident that his conspicuous deeds, by his support to the Imperial Court and to form Japanese culture in the later eras using his knowledge acquired in Tang Dynasty, exceled above all other members of Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty.

２．Background and Roles of Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China

Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China had been repeatedly sent for 260 years, however, the missions and characters of each Envoy varied depending on the period.  According to a book titled “The period of ships for Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China” compiled by Symposium for Re-enactment of Ships for Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China, the periods are classified to 3 terms as follows,

The First Period (630-669, sent 7 times)

The Envoys to Tang Dynasty in this period meant an extension of Japanese Envoys to Sui Dynasty China.  The members of the Envoys made effort to learn new ideas, arts & science and systems such as religions including Buddhism, studies, technologies and skills, and to contribute to Japan to form a better governmental and political system and advanced culture.  On the other hand, it was expected to play diplomatic roles on Tang Dynasty’s expeditions against Goguryeo and Korean peninsula, and on the imminent situations of Baekje (overthrown in 660) with which Japan had close relationship.  The interaction between Japan and Tang Dynasty lapsed for 32 years after the Envoy in 669.

The Second Period (702-779, sent 7 times)

In this period, Tang Dynasty China attracted the highest interest of Ancient Japan.  The Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty was renewed in 702 and the country name of Nippon (Japan) legislated by Taiho Ritsuryo (legal codes) and designation of Tenno (emperor of Japan) were officially used at the diplomacy there.  They had seen and heard many things in Changan, capital of Tang Dynasty, and since they informed Japan of a plan of magnificent wall city, it would be a point of constructing Heijo-kyo (the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara).  The Envoys understood themselves as tributary envoys, however, they did not bring credentials as diplomatic documents, and they did not receive a peerage from the Emperor of Tang Dynasty to the Emperor of Japan under the tributary system of Tang Dynasty, and not serve the Emperor of Tang Dynasty.  At the entertainment ceremonies hosted by the Emperor of Tang Dynasty, they competed in the ranks among the other countries, however, they treated as tributary envoys by alien subjects and presented cotton cloths, silk products, silver and crystals as local specialty products dedicated to the Tang Dynasty.

In addition to the political and diplomatic objects, the Tang culture was frequently imported.  After the Envoy with Makibi sent in 717, according to the requests to renew the government system and that from the Buddhist world, the students in the Envoys were segmented to the short stay type aiming at learning the urgent and the long stay type in order to enrich the student dispatching system furthermore.  Also, accepting the requests from Imperial family and aristocracy worshipping Buddhism, they tried to invite Tang people to Japan, having distinguished knowledge, ideas, technology and skills on Buddhism.  In 754, Jianzhen (Ganjin in Japanese)’s visit to Japan came true due to the request to Emperor Xuan Zong by the Japanese Envoy, and the Retired Emperor Shomu and Emperor Kouken etc. in Japan were granted Bosatsukai (Bodhisattva Precepts) by Jianzhen in order to be acknowledged by Tang Dynasty as a World-class country respecting Buddhism and build good international relationship.

The Third Period (803 and 836, sent twice)

The large 2 Envoys in Heian Period (in 794 through 1185) in 9^th Century left major marks on interaction of people between Tang Dynasty and Japan.  In this period, Tang Dynasty had been changing after An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 in China), however, the cultural objects to send the Envoys were still remained even though the objects on international politics were not clear.  It is well known that Kukai and Saicho (sent in 803) and Ennin (sent in 836), monks and members of the Envoys to study the state-of-the-art Buddhism in Tang so hard, had made detailed and thorough preparations in Japan and then energetically sought Dharma in Tang during the short period of time.

The advanced Tang culture brought by Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China became to an element to form Tang-way culture in Japan.  And it significantly contributed to build the Japanese religious faith complicatedly adding desire both of the present interest and life-after-death interest in Shinto, Buddhism and Onmyodo (yin-yan philosophy) as well as renovation of various ideas and religions.

３．To Kokufu Culture (Japan’s Original Natural Culture) from Tang-way Culture

In 894 Sugawara-no-Michizane was appointed to the commander-in-chief of the Japanese Envoy to Tang Dynasty China.  However, as he recommended to suspend to send the Envoy because of the weakened control power of Tang Dynasty by the civil wars in various areas in the middle of 9^th Century and the rampant of pirates in Silla.  As his recommendation was accepted, the system to dispatch the Envoys to Tang Dynasty came to an end.  The Tang Dynasty itself perished in 907.

Already in Nara era, there were many considerations on Kokufu culture, the Japan’s own morals and feelings although respecting Chinese cultures, however, the end of sending the Envoys was one of the elements to accelerate to develop Kokufu culture in Japan.  Exactly, it is misunderstanding that the end of sending the Envoys to Tang Dynasty made Kokufu culture, and, instead, the influence of Tang culture and things from Tang became larger in 10^th Century.  Considering the life style of nobles surrounded by Karamono (originated in China) and the educated women of Kanbun culture (Chinese classics) such as Murasaki Shikibu and Seisho Nagon etc., who established women’s literature, “Kokufu culture” should be understood to be created through digesting Tang culture and Japanizing.  The Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China brought various things and the bland image toward “Karamono”, imported valuable goods controlled by the Imperial court in Japan, such as crafted products including chinaware, sophisticated fabric, fur, glassware, stationary, perfume, medicines, valuable timber, rare animals and books, had been continuously kept until Meiji era, when the goods imported from the West replaced them.

Summary of this issue

The Japanese Envoys to Tang Dynasty China crossed the sea at the risk of their lives to learn from the superpower of Tang Dynasty.  They themselves studied hard and took priests and technical experts to Japan with them, and they significantly contributed to form new ideas and arts of religion including Buddhism, science and skill, and national management systems of Japan and Japanese culture.  The import of Tang-way culture continued even after 10^th Century when the Envoy to Tang Dynasty was suspended, and, at the same time, Kokufu culture based on Japanese own morals and feelings still respecting advanced Chinese cultures, had been formed and the current Japanese culture was born.  The conspicuous deeds of Makibi there, in addition to his contribution to political stabilization, were distinguished from the other members of the successive Envoys.

As the ancient Japan sending the Envoys to Tang Dynasty, the companies today have to use strategies to strengthen their competitiveness for survival through understanding their strong and weak points specially from the competitors which are stronger than them.  Also, it is important that the companies develop and secure the human resources to successfully execute the strategies and have the high loyalty to them.

Companies boldly challenge taking the risk accompanying their execution of strategies.  To be successful and protect themselves and their human resources, the risk management is essential.  We, Global Link Ltd., recommend companies in Japan to have “captive insurance companies” which are highly effective as a risk management tool.

Author/translator: Nobuo Sugawara